b. 

c. Amine group and NH group forms hydrogen bonds with water, making histamine water-soluble

2a. C16H21N3

b. They both have aromatic rings. Antihistamine competes with histamine to bind with the receptors.

3. 

Psychological Response

• Morphine
• Aspirin
• Amphetamine
• Estrogen

Inhibit growth of substances that cause infection

• Penicillin
• Antibiotic (Keflex)

4a. For instance the herb “Ma Huang”  (Ephedra) is traditionally used in China to treat respiratory congestion. While it was marketed as dietary supplements formulated for weight reduction in US. Overdosage led to at least a dozen of deaths, heart attacks and stroke.

b. Presently, traditional medicinal materials that are not at finished dosage forms (capsules, tablets, granules) are not subjected to be imported and sold in Singapore. Such medicine also need to state information such as product/brand name, ingredients, dosage, and instructions for use if necessary.

Short-term adverse effects include eye irritation and headache.

Long-term adverse effects include respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The exposure to fine particles can lead to a faster thickening of the arteries (atherosclerosis), which in effect leads to a high blood pressure. Research conducted by an organisation in the US has found that 10 μg/m³ increase of PM_2.5 causes 1% increase in diabetes risk.

However, the extent to which haze impacts individual’s health depends several factors:

• Health status, depending on how sensitive you are.
• Elderly, children, and pregnant women are more vulnerable to experience health issues because they have a low immune system, whereby
• PSI level and duration of exposure to haze
• The amount of influence on health also depends on the severity of the haze. The table below shows the recommended amount of outdoor activity depending on the PSI level.

Reference: https://www.healthhub.sg/live-healthy/327/impact_haze_on_health

https://blissair.com/health-effects-of-haze.htm

Styrofoam is not biodegradable and does not dissolve readily in liquids such as water. This makes it a persistent part of landfill waste. However, Styrofoam dissolves readily in acetone.

a. What is the connection between coal-fired plants and poor visibility?

Coal contains 1-6% of sulfur. When sulfur is burned with oxygen, sulfur dioxide (SO2) gas is produced. However, even though sulfur dioxide is poisonous, it is colourless and does not impair visibility. The chemical equation of the reaction of sulfur with oxygen is as follows:

S(s) + O2(g) –> SO2(g)

once in the air, the SO2 reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere to form sulfur trioxide gas (SO3) gas which acts in the formaton of aerosols. Aerosols are extremely-fine liquid droplets or solid particles that remain suspended in air as fog or smoke. As a result this causes poor visibility. The chemical equation governing this equation is shown below:

2SO2(g) + O2(g) –> 2SO3(g)

b. The NPCA reported “the average rainfall in Mammoth Cave National Park is 10 estimate the pH of rainfall in the park. 

Natural rainfall has a pH of 5.3. pH = -log[H+]. Thus a pH change of 1 unit represents a power of 10 change in [H+].

If the rainfall in Mammoth Cave National Park is 10 times more acidic than natural, it means the pH is 4.3.

2. Here are examples of what an individual might do to reduce acid rain. For each, explain the connection to producing acid rain. 

There are two main ways an individual can contribute to the reduction of acid rain.

Firstly, one can contribute by saving electricity. The world generates roughly 40% of its electricity from coal. (explained in question 1, coal contains sulfur, which reacts with air to produce SO2 and SO3. SOx products react with water in rain to produce acide rain. Hence, by reducing our electricity consumption, we can reduce acid rain. a, c and d are ways to save electricity.

Secondly, we can contribute by reducing transport emissions. In the engines of transport vehicles, the high temperature accelerates the reaction between nitrogen gas and oxygen gas.

N2(g) + O2(g) –> 2NO(g)

Once formed, NO is highly reactive and reacts with hydroxyl radical, oxygen and volatile organic compounds to from NO2.

VOC + OH. –> A + O2 –> A’ + NO –> A” + NO2

Where A, A’ and A” are intermediate compounds.

NO2 reacts with rainwater to form acid rain. Hence, by reducing overall transportation emissions, by carpooling or taking public transport, we can reduce acid rain. b and e are ways to reduce transport emissions.

3a. Give names and chemical formulas for five acids and five bases.

Acids:

• Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
• Nitric Acid (HNO3)
• Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4)
• Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
• Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)

Bases:

• Ammonia (NH3)
• Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
• Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
• Magnesium Hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)
• Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)

b. Name three observable properties generally associated with acids and bases. 

Acids:

• Turns moist blue litmus paper red
• Turns methyl orange red
• Sour taste

Bases:

• Turns moist red litmus paper blue
• Turns methyl orange yellow
• Slippery texture

4. The concerns of acid rain vary across the globe. Many countries in North America and Europe have websites dealing with acid rain. Either search to locate one (“Canada, acid rain”) or use these links to websites in Canada, the UK, or Europe. What are the issues in Singapore? Does the acid deposition originate outside or inside the Singapore’s borders 

 In the case of Singapore, there was a Straits Times article in 2009 September claiming that an NUS study finds stream in nature reservoir more acidic after downpour. The article concluded that due to increase in acidity, the biodiversity in Singapore’s Bukit Timah Nature Reserve have evolved and adapted to the increasingly acidic environment, but are becoming increasingly stressed. It was reported that the pH value of the water in the stream falls between the range of 4.4 to 4.7.

However, National Parks Board (NPB) Assistant Director wrote in to clarify that tropical stream are naturally acidic. The National Environment Agency (NEA) also defended that they did not detect any increasing trends in rainfall acidity.

In 2013, NEA also addressed a rumour that claimed that cloud seeding or acid rain caused the hail that happened over the western part of Singapore between 1pm and 4.30pm on 25 Jun 2013.

NEA stated that from data backed by Meteorological Service Singapore the hailstones were formed from ball or lumps of ice within intense thunderstorm clouds, and they are different from acid rain, which is rain that contains higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulphuric acids. Hailstones sightings are actually quite rare as they usually melt away before reaching the ground.

An article in 2014 highlighted that with the new system of calculating PSI, Singapore’s air quality fall has fallen below WHO standard. The article also suggested that other than flagging out neighbouring countries as key sources of air polluters, local polluters in Singapore has to be placed in check too. Hence strictly speaking sources of acid deposition may not be only from outside Singapore borders.

A  thesis done by a local NTU student identified that Singapore does actually experience acid rain to a certain extent. Findings from two sampling locations, namely NTU and in Hougang, showed an average pH of 4.53 in NTU and 4.61 in Hougang. Which is below the natural pH of rain, which is about 5-6. The lower pH recorded in NTU suggest that acidic ions released are contributed by SOx and NOx from industries located in the western part of Singapore as NTU is in close proximity to Jurong Island and Tuas.

References

http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.COAL.ZS

http://wildsingaporenews.blogspot.sg/2009/09/native-species-in-singapore-may-be.html#.WMkT1BJ97aY

 http://www.haze.gov.sg/faq

 https://repository.ntu.edu.sg/handle/10356/54645   

http://www.haze.gov.sg/news-releases/haze-talk-clarification-on-hailstones/

Above is the breakdown of the estimated total economic cost (US $16 billion) of the fires in 2015 in Indonesia alone. This is more than double the damage and losses from the 2004 tsunami (which affected provinces in Indonesia and other countries), and equal to about 1.8% of Indonesia’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). As shown above, the economic cost is due to losses to agriculture, forestry, transport, trade, industry, tourism, and other sectors. Some of these costs are direct damage and losses to crops, forests, houses and infrastructure, as well as the cost of responding to the fires. Many of the economic losses result from the disruption of air, land and sea travel due to the haze. These damages and losses are expected to have seriously impacted the economic growth rate of affected provinces and the government’s efforts to reduce poverty in the hardest-hit regions, such as Central Kalimantan. Early estimates by Indonesia had indicated that a haze crisis could set Indonesia back by up to 475 trillion rupiah (S$48.4 billion).

Chua Hak Bin, an economist at Bank of America Merrill Lynch in Singapore estimated the impact on Singapore could range from 0.1 per cent to 0.4 per cent of gross domestic product, depending on whether the haze lasts for one month or three.

Haze also affected the economy of other countries in the South East Asian (SEA) region such as Singapore and Thailand. The degree of impact on these economies are questionable as there is no exact way to measure the impact of haze.

Dr Ng said that it has not been the Government’s priority to discover the economic impact of the haze as it was a “short” episode which occurred over two days and a weekend. “I would say that the impact hasn’t been as large as compared to Sars, for example. Singaporeans basically got on with their lives, and I think we need to do that, not only for the economic impact, but because it shows our resilience,” he said.

Despite, haze being incomparable to epidemics like Sars, the haze has shaped Singapore’s economy and behaviour, using an example of how the Ministry of Social and Family Development had rolled out a S$2.5 million fund to help childcare centres and kindergartens purchase air-conditioners or retrofit their centres.

The haze also greatly affects Singapore’s tourism industry. 

The worst haze in 1997 cost Singapore $300 million, while a milder event in 2013 led to about $50 million of losses to retailers, hotels, tourism and the economy overall, according to research by Euston Quah, a professor and head of the economics division at Nanyang Technological University.

Singapore is highly dependent on her tourism to boost her economy. Tourist in Singapore spend a lot on retail, tourist attractions and hotels. With the large loss in tourist during the haze period, revenue from the tourism industry decreased greatly as governments declared that it is unsafe for travel when PSI readings are over the healthy limit. Flights packed with tourists delayed or diverted due to unsafe conditions is unavoidable during the haze season. Hence, haze impacted Singapore’s economy greatly.

Not only was Singapore’s tourism affected, Thailand’s tourism industry was greatly affected as well. Popular tourist spots like, Phuket and Surat Thani, had dust levels within acceptable margins, but close enough to the limit resulting in many tourist cancelling their trips as tourists try to avoid the haze-affected tourism destinations in Southeast Asia. As a result, the tourism industry is starting to feel the impact of the prolonged haze.

Besides that, haze affects productivity and economies of scale.

A protracted and severe haze may delay construction projects and slow factory output, according to Weiwen Ng, a Singapore-based economist at Australia & New Zealand Banking Group Ltd.

Many projects and constructions are disrupted due to haze and hence reducing the productivity of countries.

references:

http://www.straitstimes.com/business/economy/singapore-gdp-will-take-hit-from-haze-as-countries-issue-travel-warnings

http://www.dw.com/en/haze-affecting-thai-tourism-industry/a-18801663

http://m.todayonline.com/singapore/economic-impact-haze-may-not-be-great-ng-eng-hen

http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/01/indonesias-fire-and-haze-crisis

http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/study-to-assess-true-impact-of-haze-crisis

Children cover their noses near burnt land in Marpoyan Damai sub district, in the outskirts of Pekanbaru, in Indonesia’s Riau province June 20, 2013

Haze has led to many social impacts in Indonesia as well as countries in the South East Asian region.

Indonesia greatest impact has closest to the haze. Many homes of the vulnerable- young, elderly and pregnant – had to be relocated, causing inconvenience for them. Besides that, the education of school children were affected as many schools had to be close due to hazardous levels of haze. Businesses and schools across the region close due to the haze, crippling many low-income families and prompting them to fall back into poverty. Approximately 5 million students have been impacted by school closures in 2015.

Haze forced school closures for up to 34 days, resulting in USD 34 million in costs. 14 In some instances, schools closed for weeks at a time, obliging teachers to accommodate take-home assignments. Conditions were worst in October 2015, impacting 24,773 schools and 4,692,537 students. Child-care costs and foregone wages increase when parents must care for children normally in school. These long-term, sustained school closures could contribute to weaker graduation rates if reclaiming lost school days becomes burdensome.

I had personally experience haze during my school days in secondary school and junior college. The impact on which haze had on our school curriculum was harsh and classes had to be relocated to air-conditioned rooms and some classes like Physical Education (PE) even had to be cancelled. Both events were on the year of my major examinations – O’levels and A’levels and many students, including myself, were anxious if the haze would affect our sitting for the examination. Schools did not close despite the PSI hitting to a high of over 400 (hazardous) in 2015, however, schools were prepared in the case that closure of schools were to happen.

Hardware shop Home in Clementi put up a sign announcing that it was giving away free masks to the elderly and children. PHOTO: THOMAS CHIA

Despite all the negative impacts, it has brought about the “Singaporean spirit” and sense of community in Singapore as organisations and people give out free mask to fellow citizens. While there were reports of people cashing in by re-selling N95 masks at a higher price during the last haze crisis in 2013, one hardware shop is doing the exact opposite this time round.

Local kindness movement Stand Up For Singapore kick started a fund-raising campaign called “I Will Be Your Shelter” to buy air purifiers and filters for the elderly and needy in the North Bridge Road area. It raised about $6,000 through crowdfunding site Indiegogo and donations as of October 2015 and distributed 40 air filters and 10 purifiers to the residents on September 19.

There are many other kind acts by Singaporeans during the tough times of haze such as a mask-collection drive “Let’s Help Kalimantan” launched by sisters and a project “3,000 masks, 1 Singapore” by Mr Cai Yinzhou.

Forget The Maze Runner, in Singapore we have… Credits to M2CTR

The haze has also created a common topic for citizens to talk and joke about. Above is an example.

In conclusion, despite all the adverse impacts on society, there has been some positive light. However, this does not dampen the negative impacts of which haze has manifested.

Resources:

http://blogs.ft.com/photo-diary/tag/lee-hsien-loong/

http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/643781465442350600/Indonesia-forest-fire-notes.pdf

http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/environment/dealing-with-the-haze-lifting-the-gloom-with-acts-of-kindness-social

The impact of haze on organisms that are more delicate than mammals like us is much more likely to be serious than they symptoms we may have such as asthma, and it is known that the wildlife lacks the immunity to resist the haze. As botanist Lahiru Wijedasa (NUS) implicated, studies on the effect of haze on biodiversity and ecosystems has not yet been extensively investigated, but the ecological implications certainly are of great concern.

The impact on marine life is also of great concern as haze threatens biodiversity in its ecosystem (ocean). For example, the reduced reach of sunlight due to the haze and the particles in haze that settle on coastal areas are decreasing the viability of sunlight-dependent phytoplanktons which are one of the major source of food for many marine organisms.

Image source: http://gleanerblogs.com/socialimpact/?p=2767

Reference: https://news.mongabay.com/2015/11/haze-killing-the-mood-for-southeast-asias-wildlife/

http://wildshores.blogspot.sg/2015/09/how-does-haze-affect-marine-life.html

Haze is caused by particulate matter from many sources including smoke, road dust, and other particles emitted directly into the atmosphere, as well as particulate matter formed when gaseous pollutants react in the atmosphere. These particles often grow in size as humidity increases, further impairing visibility and health.

Based on National Agency Environment, major components of haze in Singapore are:

1) Particulate matter (PM/habuk halus): PM affects more people than any other pollutant. PM10 and below are worse. The major components of PM are sulfate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, carbon, mineral dust and water. Chronic exposure to particles contributes to the risk of developing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as of lung cancer.

2) Sulfur dioxide (SO2): This is what gives the haze the acrid smell. It is produced from the burning of peat forests. SO2 can affect the respiratory system and the functions of the lungs, and causes irritation of the eyes. Inflammation of the respiratory tract causes coughing, mucus secretion, aggravation of asthma and chronic bronchitis and makes people more prone to infections of the respiratory tract. Hospital admissions for cardiac disease and mortality increase on days with higher SO2 levels.

3) Carbon monoxide (CO): A gas produced from incomplete combustion. This gas prevents the uptake of oxygen by the blood, which can lead to a significant reduction in the supply of oxygen to the heart, particularly in people suffering from heart diseases.

4) Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂): A reddish-orange-brown gas with an irritating, acrid, characteristic pungent odor. In sunlight, nitrogen dioxide can lead to the formation of ozone, nitric acid and nitrate-containing particles.

5) Ozone (O₃): Ozone at ground level – not to be confused with the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere – is one of the major constituents of photochemical smog. Excessive ozone in the air can have a marked effect on human health. It can cause breathing problems, trigger asthma, reduce lung function and cause lung diseases.

6) Other components present in the haze: Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water vapor (H₂O)  from the burning.

Basic Equation for an incomplete combustion

hydrocarbon + oxygen à carbon monoxide + carbon + water

• Key reason for incomplete combustion is due to insufficient supply of oxygen available to react with the hydrocarbons. As partial combustion occurs, hydrogen will still react and oxide to form water vapor. However due to the shortage of oxygen, carbon monoxide or carbon in the form of soot is produced instead.

Chemical Equation

2C₁₄ H₃₀ + 33O_{2   →} Heat Energy + 4C + 12CO + 12CO₂ + 30H₂O

Diesel+ Oxygen   →    Energy+Carbon(Soot)+ Carbon Monoxide+ Carbon Dioxide+ Water Vapour

OR

C₁₄ H₃₀ +11O₂  →  Heat Energy + 7C +7CO + 15H₂O

Diesel   + Oxygen → Energy + Carbon(Soot) + Carbon Monoxide + Water Vapour

The chemical equation above demonstrates the 2 different outcomes of incomplete and partial combustion where one still manage to produce carbon dioxide along with soot and carbon monoxide whereas for the second equation only demonstrates soot and carbon monoxide as by products. Carbon particles are usually seem as soot or smoke.

Reference from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/aqa/crudeoil/hydrocarbonsrev1.shtml